CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
Prepared By:
©Ashok Sapkota
Department of ELT
Lecturer, (KSC,CMC)2010
©Sapkota-2010(This material is copyright. The author allows a reader to use it for the studying purpose only. It doesn’t allow the copying of entire of making multiple copies. Written permission is needed for that purpose in advance)
INTRODUCTION
Key Points:
•A contrastive analysis describes the structural differences and similarities of two or more languages. As an area of enquiry, contrastive analysis (CA) is concerned with the principles and uses of such descriptions. It implies a belief in language universals; as in any contrast, if there were no features in common, there would be no basis for comparison. (A cuckoo and a crow can be compared more easily than a cuckoo and a cough.)

•Broadly defined, CA has been used as a tool in historical linguistics to establish language genealogies, in comparative linguistics to create language taxonomies and in translation theory to investigate problems of equivalence. In language teaching it has been influential through the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which claims that difficulties in language learning derive from the differences between the new language and the learner's first language, that errors in these areas of difference derive from first language interference and that these errors can be predicted and remedied by the use of CA.

•The CAH was widely influential in the 1950s and 1960s, but from the 1970s its influence dramatically declined. This was due in part to the supplanting of structuralism, with which it was closely associated. The CAH was also at odds with the views in SLA and inter-language theory that only a small proportion of errors derived from first language
•CA is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to establish language genealogies.

•Contrastive analysis (CA) is a linguistic enterprise founded on the assumption that languages can be compared. CA seems to be a hybrid linguistic enterprise. In terms of the three criteria discussed here we might venture the following provisional definition: CA is a linguistic enterprises aimed at producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative) two-valued typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the assumption that languages can be compared (James, 1980).

•"CA is a systematic comparison of specific linguistic characteristics of two or more languages" (Van et al., (1984), as cited in James, 1980). CA is an attempt to discover the prints of similarities and differences between two or more languages.

•Oller (1971), maintain that is a 'device for predicting points of difficulty and some for predicting points of difficulty and some of the errors that learners will make' (p. 79).
• According to James (1980), CA can predict three things:
a) It can pre-identify the aspects likely to cause trouble.
b) It can predict difficulty and
c) It can predict errors. (p. 145)

•Similarly, Weinreich (1953), introduces the following assumptions:
'The greater the differences between the two system i.e. the more numerous the mutually exclusive forms and pattern in each the greater is the learning problem and potential area of interferences' (as cited in James, 1980).
•From the above definitions we can known that the L2 learners tends to transfer the formal features of their L1 to transfer the formal features that the greater the differences between the two languages, the greater the number of errors in performance.

• Terminologies
First language (L1, or mother tongue, or native language, or primary language, or filter language.)
Second Language( l2 or foreign language, or target language, or secondary language, or other language)


HISTORY
•Contrastive analysis (CA) I s the comparison of the linguistic system of two languages. For example: the sound system or the grammatical system. It was developed and practiced in the 1950’s as an application of structural linguistics to language teaching, and based on the following assumptions:
a.The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by the interference from the first language. (Language transfer).
b.These difficulties can be predicted by CA.
c.Teaching materials can make use of Contrastive Analysis to reduce the effect of interference. ( Richards et al.,1985, P.83)

•The theoretical foundations for what became known as the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis were formulated in Lado's Linguistics Across Cultures (1957). In this book, Lado claimed that "those elements which are similar to [the learner's] native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult". While this was not a novel suggestion, Lado was the first to provide a comprehensive theoretical treatment and to suggest a systematic set of technical procedures for the contrastive study of languages. This involved describing the languages (using structuralist linguistics), comparing them and predicting learning difficulties.

•During the 1960s, there was a widespread enthusiasm with this technique, manifested in the contrastive descriptions of several European languages, many of which were sponsored by the Center of Applied Linguistics in Washington, DC. It was expected that once the areas of potential difficulty had been mapped out through Contrastive Analysis, it would be possible to design language courses more efficiently. Contrastive Analysis, along with Behaviorism and Structuralism exerted a profound effect on SLA curriculum design and language teacher education, and provided the theoretical pillars of Audio-Lingual Method.

•CA compares two languages viz. the students’ mother tongue the target languages, find out similarities and differences and then predict the area of ease and difficulty.

Functions of CA
CA is said to have two functions: Primary and Secondary.
i)Primary Functions of CA
•The Primary function of CA is to predict errors likely to be committed by L2 learners.
•While learning L2, learners commit errors. CA is also primarily concerned with predicting the areas of difficulty in learning and errors in performances.
•The Primary function of CA is also known as application of CA.
•Functions as a predictive device.

ii)Secondary Functions of CA
CA accounts for the errors which are committed by L2 learners. CA explains the causes or sources of errors.
•Secondary functions of CA are concerned with the account of the actual errors committed by second language learners while learning L2.
• It is taken as an explanatory tool.

Versions of CA
•It is Wardhaugh (1970), who suggests that CA hypothesis exists in two versions: strong and weak versions. Although both versions are based on the assumption of L1 interferences, they differ from one another in that strong version claim to have predictive power and the weak one less ambitiously claims to have the power to diagnose the errors that have been committed.

Transfer Theory of CA
• Lado (1957), as cited in James (1980), states that 'individuals tend to transfer the forms and meaning and distributions of forms and meaning of their native languages and culture to the foreign languages and culture'. Regarding transfer, an individual tend to transfer what he had already acquired from his mother tongue. The Nepali L1 speaker is familiar with his L1 so he will not have to learn it but can transfer it to L2. If the 'learners get the learning foreign languages is much easier' then it is called positive transfer or facilitation and when there is difference between learners L1 and L2 structures and it is very difficult to learn foreign languages it is called transfer or hindrances or interference.
Assumptions of CA
There are two categories of CA assumption. They are psycholinguistics component and psychological component.
i) Psycholinguistic Component
The following assumptions are the psycholinguistic component of CA.
a) Language learning is fundamentally a matter of habit formation.( Behaviourism )
b) The mind of second language learner's full of L2 habits where as that of L1 learners is a 'tabula rasa' i.e. an empty state of paper. (Empiricism)
c) Languages are not same but different so comparable.
(Source: James, 1980)
ii) Psychological Components
It is also known as transfer theory. According to psychological components, later learning is conditioned by the former learning is conditioned by the learning. Transfer means the use of Past learning in the present one.
According to Eills (1965), transfer is the hypothesis that the learning task of 'A' will affect the subsequences learning task of 'B'. In our case, L1 and L2 represent task 'A' and task 'B' respectively. CA is established on the assumption that L2 learners will tend to transfer to their L2 utterances the formal features of their L1 (James, 1980).

LANGUAGE TRANSFER PROCESS IN CA
SIMALARITY – FACILATATION – POSITIVE TRANSFER – ERRORLESS
DIFFERENCES – INTERFERENCE – NEGATIVE TRANSFER - ERRONOUS

Criticism
In its strongest formulation, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claimed that all the errors made in learning the L2 could be attributed to 'interference' by the L1. However, this claim could not be sustained by empirical evidence that was accumulated in the mid- and late 1970s. It was soon pointed out that many errors predicted by Contrastive Analysis were inexplicably not observed in learners' language. Even more confusingly, some uniform errors were made by learners irrespective of their L1. It thus became clear that Contrastive Analysis could not predict learning difficulties, and was only useful in the retrospective explanation of errors. These developments, along with the decline of the behaviourist and structuralist paradigms considerably weakened the appeal of Contrastive Analysis.

Criticisms labeled against CA (Limitations of CA, issues of contention)

CA was criticized heavily by the opponents during 1970s. Following are the issues of contention given by the critics of CA.
a. CA is in adequate.
b. CA is unreliable.
c. CA is redundant.
d. CA is unprofitable.
e. CA exerts derogatory influence on l2 learning.
f. CA is a sham( pseudo-procedure)
g. CA assumptions are shaky.
(NOTE: Here, Counter criticism refers to the first criticisms and then defense to those criticisms of CA)

Books for further readings:
Allen,J.P.B. and, Corder,S.P.(eds.)(1974). Techniques in applied Linguistics. OUP. (P-279-311)
Corder,S.P. (1973). Introducing applied linguistics. Penguin Books. England. (P.199-256)
Crystal, D. (2003). A dictionary of linguistics of phonetics. Blackwell Publication Ltd, 108 Cowley Road, UK. (P.107)
James, C. (1980). Contrastive analysis. London, Longman. (Whole Book)
Richards et al. (1999). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. essex: Longman. (P.83)
Van Els et al. (1984). Applied linguistics and the learning and teaching of foreign languages. London: Edward Arnold. ( P-35-46)